"Nihonga," translated as "Japanese paintings," refers to a specific style of art. But what exactly does this term encompass? Does it include all paintings created in Japan? Can any artwork by a Japanese artist be classified as "Nihonga"? Or is the term reserved exclusively for works that feature traditional Japanese subjects? This article explores the concept and definition of Nihonga, introduces prominent Nihonga artists, and highlights museums in Japan where you can enjoy this unique art form.
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The Concept and Definition of Nihonga (Japanese Painting)
According to the Japanese dictionary Kojien, Seventh Edition (edited by Shinjirō Iwanami, Iwanami Shoten, 2018), the entry for "Nihonga" is defined as follows:
"A term referring to paintings created during and after the Meiji period, in contrast to Western paintings introduced from Europe. These works are based on traditional Japanese techniques and styles, created primarily using ink and mineral pigments, with some organic colorants added, and painted on silk, paper, or similar materials using brushes."
For those familiar with Japanese history, the "Meiji period" mentioned here refers to the era spanning over 40 years from the Meiji Restoration in 1868. This interpretation reveals that the concept of "Nihonga" is surprisingly recent in the context of Japan's long history, having been established in the mid-19th century.
In this article, we will delve into Nihonga by examining its origins, characteristics, and materials. During our research, we reviewed several resources and discovered that the scope of what is considered "Nihonga" varies slightly depending on the author or publication.
Currently, there is a clear coexistence of two tendencies: "an effort to broadly interpret the concept of Nihonga and another to define it more narrowly" (as highlighted by Ryo Furuta in What Was Nihonga? A Study of Modern Nihonga History, KADOKAWA, 2018).
Unless otherwise specified, this article adopts the definition cited from the dictionary mentioned above, interpreting "Nihonga" as a concept established in modern times. Given that this definition itself is a topic of debate, we must note in advance that this article does not delve into the finer points of each discussion.
The Birth of the Concept of "Nihonga": A Lecture by Ernest Fenollosa
To begin, let us review the events surrounding the birth of the concept of "Nihonga" during the Meiji period in Japan. According to What Was Nihonga? A Study of Modern Nihonga History by Ryo Furuta, "The first recorded use of the term 'Nihonga' as an artistic term in opposition to Western oil painting occurred in May 1882 (Meiji 15) during a lecture titled 'True Theory of Art' by Ernest F. Fenollosa (1853–1908), a foreigner living in Japan."
Fenollosa was one of the "hired foreigners" who came to Japan to transplant Western philosophy. His lecture, originally delivered in English and later translated into Japanese, introduced the term "Nihonga" as the translation of "Japanese painting."
In this lecture, Fenollosa aimed to highlight qualities in Japanese painting that surpassed the realism and structural elements of Western art. By "Nihonga," Fenollosa referred to "a collective term for paintings native to Japan as opposed to oil paintings, encompassing all works created with traditional techniques and materials, regardless of style."
Characteristics of Nihonga: Differences from Western Painting
The origins of the concept "Nihonga" can be traced to these events, and by the early 1890s, the term had become relatively widespread, though not without issues. As noted by Noritaka Kitazawa in his essay A Preliminary Study on the Formation of the Concept of "Nihonga" (Art History of Boundaries: Notes on the Formation of 'Art,' Expanded and Revised Edition, Chikuma Shobo, 2023), "The term 'Nihonga' had become fairly generalized, despite its contentious nature."
Ryo Furuta, in Visual and Mental Imagery in Japanese Art History: Between Artists, Works, and Viewers (Minerva Shobo, 2014), analyzes the development of Nihonga expressions after the 1890s as follows:
"The expressive challenges essential to the formation of Nihonga originated from the realistic tendencies inherited from 'pre-Nihonga' traditions. Modern Nihonga began by incorporating realistic elements into the traditional styles of established schools such as the Kano and Maruyama schools. Fenollosa's theories influenced these developments, as did the efforts of painters affiliated with institutions like the Tokyo School of Fine Arts and the Japan Painting Association (commonly referred to as the 'New School'). These improvements in expression included: controlling the use of overly bold and unrealistic lines, expanding the color palette and incorporating gradation techniques, adopting shading and perspective for three-dimensional expression, and transitioning from centrifugal or multi-perspective compositions to centripetal expressions based on one-point perspective. These innovations aimed to achieve the realistic representation of objects and spaces that Western painting presupposed."
However, by the 1900s, the focus in Nihonga shifted once again, moving from an emphasis on "lines" and "realistic expressions" toward attention to lineless techniques and a transformation from realism to decorative elements.
Let us now consider the characteristics of Nihonga by comparing them to Western painting (Yoga).
According to Ryo Furuta in Visual and Mental Imagery in Japanese Art History, Nihonga and Western painting can be distinguished by materials, external features, and other elements typical of their standard works. Here are some comparisons, extracted from a chart in his book:
For the support materials (the base on which the painting is created), Western paintings use canvas, while Nihonga employs silk or paper.
In terms of format, Western paintings are typically displayed in frames, whereas Nihonga often takes the form of hanging scrolls, folding screens, or handscrolls.
As for the subjects, Western paintings frequently depict themes like nudes, landscapes, and portraits. In contrast, Nihonga tends to focus on themes such as flowers and birds, landscapes, and beautiful women.
Materials Used in Nihonga Painting
Let us now shift focus slightly and explore the materials used in creating Nihonga paintings. This section draws from the content of the catalog Reviving Nihonga—Tradition and Heritage: 1,000 Years of Wisdom (edited by the Nihonga Conservation Studio, Graduate School of Fine Arts, Tokyo University of the Arts, published by the Museum Cooperation Association, 2001).
Nihonga, a painting style with a long history (defined in this catalog as encompassing "over a thousand years of tradition"), is created on surfaces such as traditional Japanese paper (washi), silk, or wood. Natural pigments used in Nihonga are derived from "crushed minerals and rocks" or "substances obtained from plants and animals."
The pigments made from crushed minerals are known as "natural mineral pigments." The finer the particles (indicated by a higher grade number), the lighter the color becomes. For example, ultramarine pigment is derived from crushed azurite. On the other hand, pigments extracted from plants and animals are referred to as "dyes." A notable example is "gamboge," a plant-derived yellow dye. However, due to factors like toxicity or limited natural availability, some pigments are now artificially produced.
Another widely used material in Nihonga is gofun, a white pigment. The highest quality gofun is made from the shells of oysters known as itabogaki. Beyond serving as a white pigment, gofun is also used as a base layer or to create raised, three-dimensional textures, such as for flower petals.
Additionally, a critical component used with the pigments is an adhesive called nikawa. Unlike oil or watercolor paints, Nihonga pigments, which are made from crushed minerals or refined soil, lack natural adhesive properties. Nikawa, made by boiling collagen from animal hides, bones, or fish skins to extract gelatin, is used to bind the pigments to the surface. Even today, nikawa is used as an adhesive in furniture-making.
Renowned Nihonga Artists: Taikan, Shoen, and Kaii
Let us now delve into modern Nihonga by introducing a select few prominent artists. This section is based on Nihon-eiga no Kyokasho: More Enjoyable When You Understand the Perspective (edited by Ryo Furuta, Natsume Publishing, 2023) and Japanese Painters from School Textbooks, Vol. 2: Nihonga Artists—Yokoyama Taikan, Higashiyama Kaii, Uemura Shoen, and Others (supervised by Kunio Itoi, illustrated by Takayuki Ino, authored by Miyako Kudo, Shobunsha, 2013).
Yokoyama Taikan
The first artist to introduce is Yokoyama Taikan (1868–1958), known as a "master who continuously led the Nihonga world." Taikan entered the Tokyo Fine Arts School at the age of 21, where he met Okakura Tenshin (a key figure in founding the school alongside Fenollosa and its first principal) and honed his artistic talent.
One of Taikan's representative works, Muga (Selflessness), was created when he was 29. The painting depicts a child wearing oversized kimono and adult-sized sandals, symbolizing a "state of selflessness and enlightenment without desire." Known for "seeking new possibilities in Nihonga," Taikan pioneered an innovative technique called Mōrōtai ("hazy style"), which avoids the use of outlines, and boldly tackled classical methods, positioning himself as a leader in the Nihonga world.
Uemura Shoen
Next is Uemura Shoen (1875–1949), recognized as "the pinnacle of female Nihonga artists" for her bijinga (paintings of beautiful women). Shoen entered the Kyoto Prefectural Painting School at the age of 12, and by 15, she debuted when one of her works, displayed at an exposition, was purchased by visiting British royalty.
Her representative work, Jo no Mai (Dance Performance Prelude), a designated Important Cultural Property, depicts "a woman of the upper class practicing traditional dance." This painting is highly regarded not only as Shoen's masterpiece but also as an iconic bijinga. Later, Shoen became the first woman to receive the Order of Culture.
Kaiyi Higashiyama
The third artist is Higashiyama Kaii (1908–1999), often referred to as a "national Nihonga artist." Kaii was an excellent student at the Tokyo Fine Arts School, but his true talent emerged after World War II. In addition to numerous awards, he undertook major projects such as creating murals for the Tōgū Palace and the Imperial Palace. Notably, he spent 10 years producing fusuma (sliding door) paintings for the Toshodaiji Temple in Nara Prefecture, demonstrating his immense dedication and skill.
Places to Appreciate Nihonga in Japan
Here are some recommended spots to enjoy Nihonga in Japan. Art museums across the country frequently hold exhibitions featuring specific Nihonga artists or styles, which may even travel to other museums nationwide. If you have a favorite artist or are curious about a particular style, check the internet for exhibition information.
The National Museum of Modern Art (Tokyo)
First is The National Museum of Modern Art, Tokyo, located in Chiyoda-ku (within Kitanomaru Park). MOMAT showcases the "flow of Japanese modern and contemporary art from the late 19th century to the present" through its collection exhibition, the "MOMAT Collection." Approximately 200 works are always on display, with about five rotations per year. A room dedicated to the Nihonga genre is also available.
Address: 3-1 Kitanomaru Park, Chiyoda-ku, Tokyo
- Access: About a 3-minute walk from Takebashi Station on the Tokyo Metro Tozai Line
- Hours: 10:00 AM–5:00 PM (Fridays and Saturdays until 8:00 PM)
- Note: Hours for special exhibitions may vary. Last admission is 30 minutes before closing.
- Closed: Mondays (open on holidays, closed the following weekday), during exhibit changes, and at the end of the year/new year.
Adachi Museum of Art (Shimane)
Next is the Adachi Museum of Art in Yasugi City, Shimane Prefecture. This museum is internationally renowned for its stunning Japanese garden, which has been ranked the best in Japan for 21 consecutive years by a U.S.-based Japanese garden magazine. However, it is not only the garden that draws visitors. The museum also boasts a collection of 2,000 works, including 120 pieces by Yokoyama Taikan alone.
- Address: 320 Furukawa-cho, Yasugi City, Shimane Prefecture
- Access: About a 20-minute ride on the free shuttle bus from JR Yasugi Station
- Hours: April–September: 9:00 AM–5:30 PM, October–March: 9:00 AM–5:00 PM
- Closed: Open year-round
Shohaku Art Museum (Nara)
The Shohaku Art Museum, located in Nara City, Nara Prefecture, is dedicated to showcasing the works of three generations of the Uemura family: Uemura Shoen, her son Uemura Shoko, and Shoko’s son Uemura Atsushi. The museum is home to Shoen's renowned work Hanagatami (Flower Basket).
- Access: About a 5-minute bus ride from the North Exit of Kintetsu Nara Line’s Gakuenmae Station. Take a bus from platforms 5 or 6 to "Obuchi-bashi (in front of Shohaku Art Museum)" and walk across the bridge to the right.
- Hours: 10:00 AM–5:00 PM (last entry at 4:00 PM)
- Closed: Mondays (or the following weekday if Monday is a public holiday), year-end and New Year holidays, during exhibit changes, and other necessary times.
Nagano Prefectural Art Museum (Nagano)
Lastly, the Nagano Prefectural Art Museum in Nagano City, Nagano Prefecture, features the Higashiyama Kaii Gallery, which opened in 1990. With over 970 pieces in its collection, the gallery rotates its exhibits approximately every two months, offering visitors the opportunity to immerse themselves in Higashiyama Kaii's artistic world.
- Address: 1-4-4 Hako-mizu, Nagano City, Nagano Prefecture (inside Joyama Park, next to Zenkoji Temple)
- Access:
- 1. From JR Nagano Station, take an Alpico Kotsu Bus from platform ① at the Zenkoji exit: Route 11 (via Zenkoji, to Ugui), Route 16 (via Zenkoji and Wakatsuki housing estate, to Wakatsuki Tojo), Route 17 (via Zenkoji and Nishijo, to Wakatsuki Tojo)
Get off at "Zenkoji Kita" (approximately 15 minutes) and walk 3 minutes in the direction the bus continues.
- 2. From Nagano Dentetsu "Zenkoji Shita Station," walk about 15 minutes to Joyama Park.
- Hours: 9:00 AM–5:00 PM (last admission at 4:30 PM)
- Closed: Wednesdays (or the following weekday if Wednesday is a public holiday), year-end and New Year holidays.
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